Ghosts of Empire
Coming Soon…
“I've traveled quite extensively in Kachin State, parts of Shan State, which of course, is a big place. And then particularly in the Southeast [of Myanmar], and in the Karen, Mon, and Karenni areas. That's an immense privilege as an outsider, as a foreigner. I think we have the opportunity to travel and sometimes make comparisons in a way that's not so easy for local people, and I feel that privilege brings with it responsibilities as well.”
Ashley South's journey into the heart of Myanmar begins with what he describes as a “series of random events.” His experiences evolved into his becoming an advocate for ethnic identities and self-determination, as well as a highly-regarded, published author and academic. His research, encompassing decades of history, personal encounters, and ever-shifting political landscapes reveals a fascinating narrative about Myanmar's ethnic complexities, where ancient identities, religious ideologies, and political movements converge.
Initially arriving in Southeast Asia in 1992 as a young English teacher, South was scheduled to work with Cambodian and Lao refugees, but a chance meeting redirected him to the Karen community in Mae Sot. There, he began teaching English in the Kho Kloi Karen refugee camp, which marked his first exposure to Burmese society.
South recalls his emotional and intellectual unpreparedness during those early days; he struggled with cultural differences among other challenges of adjusting to such a different environment. He was also disturbed by the Christian prayers of the Karen refugees in the classrooms, which conflicted with his then agnostic outlook, and he resisted the religious elements that were central to the camp's daily life. However, over time, his views began to shift. One Sunday morning, South heard the Karen singing hymns in the church building next door. What had once made him feel irritated now moved him deeply, and he recognized the strength and beauty in their devotion.
South was also struck by the incredible focus and commitment of the students and teachers, despite their very limited resources and the great challenges they faced. He was also drawn towards the transformative power of their unwavering devotion, which ultimately inspired him to reconsider his own beliefs. This led South to embrace Christianity and convert to the faith.
His travels across Myanmar offered an invaluable perspective on the country’s ethno-linguistic diversity and the resilience of communities living in the shadow of conflict. From the complexity of the Karen nationalist movement to the enduring legacy of the Mon people, South began to understand Myanmar not as a singular nation-state, but as a tapestry of sovereign, “ethnic nations” whose histories were deeply intertwined yet fiercely distinct. In fact, South argues that Myanmar is not a real nation-state at all; it is largely an artificial creation born from colonial violence and held together by successive military regimes.
South elaborates on this theme by describing the country’s ancient Mon community. On the one hand, their impactful presence continues to be felt today in a variety of ways, including religious structures, historical monuments, and even political institutions, but most importantly, their key role in helping to introduce and then spread Theravada Buddhism into the region. On the other hand, sadly, the Mon have suffered a long history of cultural and political suppression. Their independent kingdom fell in the 18th century, leading to the incorporation of Mon territory into the Burmese empire. This defeat, followed by subsequent attempts to erode Mon identity, remain significant in the community's cultural memory. Like many other ethnic communities today, the Mon have struggled to preserve their identity and traditions against pressures of assimilation.
One aspect of identity is language. In the colonial era, Mon-language speakers in the Irrawaddy Delta increasingly shifted to Burmese, as the colonial administration prioritized Burmese for commerce and governance while providing little to no support for Mon-language education. This illustrates how political power and language policies can reshape ethnic identity over generations. The infamous Burmanization policies of successive military regimes further restricted Mon language instruction. Today, Mon nationalism continues to be shaped by the twin narratives of their one-time prestige and the centuries of political and cultural suppression that followed.
South then explores the fluid and evolving nature of ethnic identity. He challenges the notion of rigid, unchanging, categories of ethnicity, explaining that identities are actually in a process of construction/reconstruction over time, in response to historical experiences and socio-political pressures. During his visits to the Irrawaddy Delta, for example, South heard suppressed and whispered histories of Karen communities, particularly those affected by military operations in the 1990s. These individuals, born from trauma and state violence, reflect a dynamic process where communities negotiate their identities amid external pressures and internal conflicts. The experience of oppression and marginalization shape how ethnic communities view themselves and their place within Myanmar’s broader, national framework.
In fact, South argues that we are now witnessing a “re-emergence of identities” that have long been suppressed by the centralized Burmese state. In the post-coup context, the weakening of central authority has provided opportunities for these “ethnic nations” to assert themselves, reclaiming histories and identities that have been marginalized for decades, if not centuries.
At the same time, South is also acutely aware of the pitfalls of identity politics, which holds within it the potential for intra-ethnic conflicts, and the marginalization of minorities within that community. For example, he describes the complexities of Karen society, where Christian, Buddhist, and animists all have differing visions of what Karen identity is and what Karen nationalism should represent. These internal tensions have, at times, led to splinter groups and conflicts within the broader Karen nationalist movement, such as the rise of the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA) in the mid-1990s. These kinds of challenges are faced by many ethnic organizations in Myanmar.
These reflections lead South to consider their broader implications for Myanmar’s future as a federal democracy. While on the one hand advocating for self-determination, he acknowledges that ethnic-based autonomy must be balanced with inclusivity. To this end, he warns against the dangers of "balkanization"—the fragmentation of a region or a country into isolated, ethnic enclaves—while also advocating for a federal system that respects and celebrates ethnic diversity. South draws on the example of pre-colonial Arakan (Rakhine State) as a model for a cosmopolitan, multi-ethnic society: at that time, Arakan was a melting pot of different cultures and religions, coexisting in relative harmony. South believes that this historical precedent offers a valuable lesson for Myanmar today: that ethnic and religious identities need not be divisive or in conflict, and that there have been documented instances of inclusive governance in Myanmar's history that can serve as a model for the future.
South also discusses the impacts of climate change on Myanmar, viewing it as a major factor that will significantly shape the country’s future. He specifically points out that rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are likely to disrupt agriculture, which is a cornerstone of Myanmar's economy and a primary livelihood for many ethnic communities. He warns that extreme weather events, such as flooding and cyclones, are expected to become more frequent, leading to widespread displacement, food insecurity, and heightened poverty. Coastal areas, particularly in the Irrawaddy Delta, are vulnerable to rising sea levels, which threaten both the livelihoods and homes of millions. South expresses concern that these environmental impacts will lead to massive humanitarian crises, causing widespread suffering and displacement, especially in rural ethnic areas already affected by conflict and limited resources.
South's insights paint a picture of Myanmar at a crossroads. On one hand, there is an opportunity for ethnic nations to reclaim their autonomy and cultural heritage, an opportunity that has been centuries in the making. On the other hand, there are real dangers associated with the rise of exclusionary nationalism, both within the majority Bamar population and among minority groups. For South, the solution lies in embracing complexity—recognizing the diversity within Myanmar’s ethnic groups while also acknowledging the commonalities that bind them together. He emphasizes that federalism must be built on the principle of inclusivity, where the rights of minorities within minorities are respected and protected.
The federal future that South envisions for Myanmar moves away from a centralized, monolithic state and towards a system that genuinely accommodates the country’s diversity. It is a vision that seeks to empower ethnic communities to determine their own futures, while also ensuring that this empowerment does not come at the expense of other minorities or lead to further fragmentation.
In the end, South's exploration of Myanmar has not been just an academic inquiry—it is a deeply personal journey of transformation and advocacy. His work reminds us that the history of Myanmar is not a simple story of domination and resistance, but a complex interplay of identities, beliefs, and political movements. By delving into the histories of Myanmar’s many ethnic groups, he has endeavored to gain an understanding of the roots of the current conflicts, as well as the possibilities for a more inclusive and just future.
“I don't expect the state of Myanmar to recover in my lifetime, partly for political reasons,” he says soberly towards the end of the discussion. “But also [stemming from] the impacts of climate change, I think that these are going to be devastating. And so I don't expect a coherent Myanmar state to recover. I think that does have massive humanitarian implications, which will inevitably drive huge suffering and displacement, which are not things to celebrate. But also it does create a political opportunity for the reemergence of these identities and associated political spaces that have arguably really been suppressed since the emergence of the modern nation-state.”
To listen to past podcast conversations exploring similar themes, we suggest the following episodes:
· Katie Craig’s work as a linguist and educator focuses on preserving Myanmar's minority languages, as she sees language as a foundation stone of identity. She explores the complex intersections of linguistic diversity and national policies, and her insights highlight how the erasure of minority languages risks not only cultural loss, but also perpetuates marginalization, connecting to broader themes of contested identities and inclusivity in governance.
· David Mathieson’s decades-long engagement with Myanmar's human rights and political landscape has been driven by a desire to understand the military's oppressive strategies and the persistence of national myths. His perspective illustrates how systems of violence and coercion shape societal identities, and reflect the interplay of historical narratives and institutional dynamics in Myanmar's complex, state-building challenges.
· Saw Htee Char’s extensive work in documenting the Myanmar resistance reveals the brutal practices of the junta and the indomitable spirit of ethnic populations resisting oppression, as well as the stark challenges of conveying these realities to an international audience. His analysis highlights the intersections of survival, governance, and community resilience, which resonate with wider discussions of self-determination and the fight for identity.
· Jane Ferguson discusses her anthropological exploration of Shan identity and history, which underscores the fluidity of ethnic and cultural classifications, challenging colonial and contemporary constructs of fixed nation-states and rigid boundaries. Her insights reveal how historical narratives and the politics of identity shape both personal and collective aspirations within contested histories.
· Elliott Prasse-Freeman’s research on grassroots activism and state violence in Myanmar examines how people navigate oppressive structures, often redefining concepts like “rights” and “resistance” in deeply localized ways. His findings touch on broader struggles with marginalization, resilience, and the quest for meaningful self-determination.